Bunreacht na hÉireann, the Constitution of Ireland, provides in Article 4, that the name of the State is Éire, or in the English language, Ireland. Normal practice dictates that Ireland is used in all English-language texts, while Éire (and its grammatic variations) is used in Irish-language texts. Corresponding translations are used for texts in other languages. The Republic of Ireland Act of 1948 provides for the description of the State as the Republic of Ireland but this provision has not changed the usage Ireland as the name of the State in the English language.
The etymology of the name Éire is uncertain and various theories have been advanced. There is no doubt but that it is a name of considerable antiquity. It first appears as Ierne in Greek geographical writings which may be based on sources as early as the 5th century BC. In Ptolemy's map (c. AD 150) the name appears as Iouernia; some such form was transliterated into Latin as Iuverna. The now standard Latin form, Hibernia, first appears in the works of Caesar, who seems to have confused a transliterated form with the Latin word hibernus (wintry). Ériu, the Old Irish form of Éire, was current in the earliest Irish literature. The modern English word Ireland derives from the combination of the Gaelic Éire with the Germanic land.
In mythology, Ériu was one of a trinity of divine female eponyms for Ireland, together with Banba and Fodla. The idea of Ireland as a heroine reappears as a common motif in later literature in both Irish and English.
Flag
The national flag is a tricolour of green, white and orange. The tricolour is rectangular in shape, the width being twice the depth. The three colours are of equal size, vertically disposed, and the green is displayed next to the staff. The first known use of the flag was as an emblem of the Young Ireland movement, when it was presented on 15 April 1848 to the then Lord Mayor of Dublin by Thomas Francis Meagher, having been displayed in Clonmel, Co. Tipperary, on 7 March of the same year. Meagher had brought the flag as a gift from France and it was often seen displayed at meetings alongside the French tricolour.
The green represents the older Gaelic and Anglo-Norman element in the population, while the orange represents the Protestant planter stock, supporters of William of Orange. The meaning of the white was well expressed by Meagher when he introduced the flag. 'The white in the centre', he said, 'signifies a lasting truce between the 'Orange' and the 'Green' and I trust that beneath its folds the hands of the Irish Protestant and the Irish Catholic may be clasped in heroic brotherhood.'
It was not until the Rising of 1916, when it was raised above the General Post Office in Dublin, that the tricolour came to be regarded as the national flag. It rapidly gained precedence over any flag which had existed before, and its use as a national flag is enshrined in the Constitution. TOP OF PAGE
The harp nowadays used as the symbol of the State. It is to be found in the seals of the President, Taoiseach, Tánaiste and Government Ministers and is used on the reverse of the euro coins minted in Ireland. The Presidential Standard is a blue flag with the heraldic harp.
The model for the artistic representation of the heraldic harp is the 14th century harp now preserved in the Museum of Trinity College Dublin, popularly known as the Brian Boru harp.
Emblems
The State coat of arms is a gold harp with silver strings on an azure field. This is adapted in flag form as the Presidential Standard, which is flown at the President's residence, Áras an Uachtaráin and on vehicles used by her.
The harp is also used as the ordinary emblem of the State by the Government, its agencies and its representatives at home and abroad. It is the principal element of the seals of the office of President and all Government Ministers. The harp is also found on the obverse of the coinage of the State and will appear on Euro coins minted in Ireland.
The harp was first recorded as arms of Ireland in medieval times. It is depicted as such alongside the coats of arms of a dozen or more medieval European kingdoms on a single folio of the Wijnbergen roll of arms compiled about 1270. The harp is found on the banners of the Irish brigades, which were formed in the armies of continental European countries during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The model for the current standard representation of the heraldic harp is the 14th century harp now preserved in the Museum of Trinity College Dublin, popularly known as the Brian Boru harp.
The shamrock, a green trefoil, is used extensively as a badge by Irish sports teams and is a component part of the logos of many Irish State organisations and companies. It is also displayed on the uniforms of Irish troops serving abroad. The shamrock is registered with the World Intellectual Property Organisation as a symbol of Ireland.
The reasons for the adoption of the shamrock as an Irish symbol are disputed but tradition holds that it was used by St Patrick when preaching the Christian gospel in Ireland to explain the concept of the Trinity. There is also a tradition of shamrock having medicinal properties and of its being eaten as a condiment. In the Victorian era the shamrock motif was used extensively in the decorative arts. The first record of the trefoil being used as a badge on St Patrick's day is in the 17th Century and this practice persists today.
In modern times shamrock is regarded to be young white clover (Trifolium repens) but there is some evidence that in previous times wood sorrell (Oxalis acetosella) was used.
Anthem
The text of The Soldier's Song (Amhrán na bhFíann), consisting of three stanzas and a chorus, was written in 1907 by Peadar Kearney, who also composed the music together with Patrick Heeney. It was first published in the newspaper, Irish Freedom, in 1912. The chorus was formally adopted as the National Anthem in 1926, displacing the earlier Fenian anthem, God Save Ireland. A section of the National Anthem (consisting of the first four bars followed by the last five) is also the Presidential Salute.
National Day
The national day is St Patrick's Day, the 17th of March.
Constitution
The basic law of the State is the Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann) adopted by referendum in 1937. It is the successor to the Constitution of Dáil Éireann (1919) and the Constitution of the Irish Free State (1922). The Constitution states that all legislative, executive and judicial powers of Government derive under God from the people. It sets out the form of government and defines the powers of the President, of the two Houses of the Oireachtas (Parliament), and of the Government. It defines the structure and powers of the Courts, and it contains a number of directive principles of social policy for the general guidance of the Oireachtas.
The Constitution regulates the method of election of the President and defines the President's powers in relation to the two Houses of the Oireachtas and the Government. It also defines the system of Courts and regulates the appointment of the judiciary.
The Constitution sets out the fundamental rights of the citizen. The definition of rights covers five broad headings: Personal Rights, The Family, Education, Private Property and Religion.
Personal Rights: the Constitution declares that all citizens are equal before the law, it guarantees to defend and vindicate the personal rights of citizens, it provides that there will be no deprivation of liberty except in accordance with law, it provides for the right of Habeas Corpus, it guarantees the inviolability of citizens' dwellings except in accordance with law, it guarantees the liberty to express freely one's convictions and opinions, the right to assemble peaceably and without arms, and the right to form associations and unions. The Supreme Court has identified additional personal rights which, although not listed in the Constitution, are protected by it, such as the right to travel and to marry and the right of access to the Courts.
The Family: through the Constitution the State guarantees to protect the family and the institution of marriage.
Education: the State recognises the primacy of the family in the education of children and undertakes to provide for free primary education and to supplement and aid private educational initiative with due regard to the rights of parents.
Private Property: the right to hold private property is guaranteed and is subject only to the exigencies of the common good.
Religion: the Constitution guarantees freedom of conscience and the free profession and practice of religion, subject only to public order and morality.
The Constitution may be amended only by an Act of the Oireachtas, the Bill for which has been approved by the people in a referendum after being passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas. Up to the end of 1999 the people had approved 19 Bills in referenda to amend the Constitution.
Citizens, and in certain cases non-citizens, have the right to apply to the Courts to protect from infringement their rights under the Constitution. They may also apply to have a judgement pronounced as to whether legislation is compatible with the Constitution, provided the legislation affects, or is likely to affect, the person challenging it. Moreover, the President may, before signing a Bill, refer it to the Supreme Court for a decision on its compatibility with the Constitution. These procedures have been employed on a number of occasions. TOP OF PAGE
President, Parliament & Government
Ireland is a parliamentary democracy. The national parliament (in the Irish language, Oireachtas) consists of the President (an tUachtarán) and two Houses: a House of Representatives (Dáil Éireann) and a Senate (Seanad Éireann). The functions and powers of the President, Dáil and Seanad derive from the Constitution of Ireland and law.
The President
Under the Constitution, the President of Ireland (Uachtarán na hÉireann) is elected by the direct vote of the people. Every citizen of thirty-five years of age or over is eligible for the office. Every citizen who has a right to vote at an election for members of Dáil Éireann has the right to vote at an election for President. The President's term of office is seven years. A President can be re-elected once only. Presidents elected since the creation of the office in 1937 have been Dr. Douglas Hyde (1938-1945), Seán T. Ó Ceallaigh (1945-1959), Éamon de Valera (1959-1973), Erskine Childers (1973-1974), Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh (1974-1976), Dr. Patrick Hillery (1976-1990), Mary Robinson (1990-1997).President Mary McAleese was elected on 30 October 1997.
The President is Head of State only and does not have executive functions. The Constitution, however, envisages the President as more than a ceremonial Head of State. It gives the President certain powers that make the President in effect the guardian of the Constitution.
The President normally acts on the advice and authority of the Government. On the nomination of Dáil Éireann the President appoints the Taoiseach (Prime Minister). On the advice of the Taoiseach and with the prior approval of Dáil Éireann the President appoints members of the Government. On the advice of the Taoiseach, the President accepts the resignation or terminates the appointment of a member of the Government. Dáil Éireann is summoned and dissolved by the President on the advice of the Taoiseach.
Before a Bill may become law, it must have the President's signature.
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The President has certain discretionary powers. First, the President may, after consultation with the Council of State, an advisory body to the President, refer any Bill to the Supreme Court for a decision as to whether it contains anything repugnant to the Constitution.
Secondly, if a majority of the Seanad and not less than one-third of the Dáil petition the President to decline to sign a Bill on the grounds that it contains a proposal of such national importance that the will of the people thereon ought to be ascertained, the President may accede to the request after consultation with the Council of State. In these circumstances the President may sign the Bill only when the proposal has been approved by the people in a referendum or by a new Dáil after a dissolution and a General Election.
The President has one power which may be exercised at his or her absolute discretion. This allows the President to refuse to dissolve the Dáil on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in the Dáil.
The supreme command of the defence forces is vested in the President and all Army Officers hold their commission from the President.
There is no Vice-President of Ireland. If the President dies in office, or is incapacitated, or is abroad, or is removed from office or fails to carry out functions enjoined on the office by the Constitution, the Constitution provides for a Commission to act in his or her place. The Commission would consist of the Chief Justice, the Chairman of Dáil Éireann (the Ceann Comhairle), and the Chairman of Seanad Éireann (the Cathaoirleach).
Parliament
Subject to the obligations of EU membership, as provided in the Constitution of Ireland the sole and exclusive power of making laws is vested in the Oireachtas. Government policy and administration may be examined and criticised in both Houses; but under the Constitution the Government is responsible to the Dáil alone. In the passage of legislation the primacy of the Dáil is clearly shown in relation to Money Bills, on which the Seanad is empowered only to make recommendations (not amendments) and these must be made within twenty-one days.
Dáil Éireann
At present Dáil Éireann has 166 members called Teachta Dála (abbreviated TD and meaning Dáil deputy). Members are returned by the forty-one constituencies into which the country is divided. Under present arrangements, twelve constituencies return three members each, fifteen constituencies return four members each, and fourteen constituencies return five members each.
Under the Constitution
- the Houses of the Oireachtas must revise the constituencies at least once every twelve years;
- no constituency may return less than three members;
- the total number of members shall from time to time be fixed by law, but the total number of members of Dáil Éireann shall not be fixed at less than one member for each thirty thousand of the population, or at more than one member for each twenty thousand of the population;
- the ratio of elected members to population shall, as far as is practicable, be the same for each constituency throughout the country.
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Seanad Éireann
Seanad Éireann has sixty members. Eleven members are nominated directly by the Taoiseach. Forty-three members are elected from five panels of candidates - The Cultural and Educational Panel, The Agricultural Panel, The Labour Panel, The Industrial and Commercial Panel and The Administrative Panel. Each panel consists of persons with knowledge and practical experience of the interests represented by the panel. The remaining six members are elected by two universities - three by the National University of Ireland and three by the University of Dublin. The powers of the Seanad, as defined by the Constitution, are in general less than those of the Dáil. It has complementary powers with the Dáil in broad areas such as the removal from office of a President or a judge; the declaration and termination of a state of emergency; the initiation of Bills other than Money Bills; and the annulment of statutory instruments. The Seanad has prior or exclusive powers in other areas, however. A petition to the President to decline to sign a Bill until the matter can be put before the people in a referendum requires the assent of a majority of the members of the Seanad (and not less than one-third of the members of the Dáil). In cases where the Government requires that a Bill be signed earlier than the fifth day after it has been presented to the President, as is laid down in the Constitution, the Government needs the concurrence of the Seanad. A private Bill, where it is intended to promote the particular interest or benefit of any person or locality, as distinct from a measure of public policy, must be introduced in the Seanad. After it has been passed by the Seanad the Bill is dealt with in the Dáil and, when and if agreed to, it is sent to the President for signing.
Parliamentary Committees
Each House of the Oireachtas has power under its Standing Orders to form Committees for specific purposes. There are two types of Committees - Special and Select - and the main difference is that a Select Committee can take oral and written evidence and seek any documents it requires. The Houses also form Joint Committees which are Select Committees of each House sitting and voting together. Some Committees are referred to as "Standing Committees" and this is because there is a provision in Standing Orders for the automatic creation of such Committees following a General Election.
As required, Ministers will be ex officio members of Committees and in the case of the Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Joint Committee on European Affairs, Irish MEPs (including Northern Ireland MEPs) and members of the Irish delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe can attend and participate at their meetings but without voting rights. These Committees can also invite MEPs of other Member States to attend under similar conditions.
Committees common to each House
i. Committee on Procedure and Privileges (considers matters relating to Standing Orders and Members' privileges);
ii Committee on Members' Interests (performs the functions conferred on it by the Ethics in Public Office Act, 1995).
Dáil Committees (28th Dáil)
i. Committee of Public Accounts (responsible for examining and reporting on reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General on Departmental expenditure).
Joint Committees of both Houses (28th Dáil)The following are the Joint Committees of the 28th Dáil which consider certain standard aspects in relation to specified Government Departments including:
i. public affairs administered by the Department as it may select including bodies under the aegis of the Department in respect of Government policy;
ii. matters of policy for which the Minister is responsible as it may select;
iii. the Strategy Statement of the Department as laid before the Houses;
iv certain Annual Reports (and Accounts) of bodies under the aegis of Departments (does not apply to the Joint Committee on European Affairs);
v. such other matters as may be referred to the Committee from time to time.
European Affairs (which deals with European Union matters onlyand has no Departmental scrutiny function)
Foreign AffairsHeritage and the Irish Language
Justice, Equality and Womens' Rights
Family, Community and Social Affairs
Enterprise and Small Business
Agriculture, Food and the Marine
Environment and Local Government
Finance and the Public Service
Public Enterprise and Transport
Health and Children
Education and Science
Tourism, Sport and Recreation.
These Committees sit as Select Committees of Dáil Éireann only for certain functions as set out in Standing Orders. These functions consist of considering the Committee stage of Bills which are referred to them by the Dáil and considering the annual Estimates (essentially the expenditure proposals for Government Departments and Offices) which are also referred to them by the Dáil.
Other Committees of the Houses (28th Dáil)
i. Joint Committee on Broadcasting and Parliamentary Information (responsible for televising of Parliamentary proceedings and monitoring the operation of the Information and Public Relations service for the Houses and their Members collectively);
ii Joint House Services Committee (responsible for the administration of the Oireachtas Library and Restaurants).
Powers of Committees The powers of Committees depend on their terms of reference and include or relate to:
Power to send for persons, papers and records;
Power to receive submissions and hear evidence from interested parties or groups;
Power to draft recommendations for legislative change and for new legislation;
Power to print and publish minutes of evidence and related documents;Power to require attendance of Ministers to discuss current policies;
Power to require attendance of Ministers to discuss proposed legislation;
Power to require attendance of prinicipal office holders in State funded bodies (subject to certain constraints).
STANDING JOINT COMMITTEE ON CONSOLIDATION BILLS
From time to time, it becomes necessary to codify statute law. Where this arises, the Committee Stage of a Consolidation Bill, with the agreement of both Houses, will be dealt with by this Committee. The Attorney General certifies that such a Bill does not involve the creation of new law.
STANDING JOINT COMMITTEE ON STANDING ORDERS (PRIVATE BUSINESS)
This Committee consists of three members of each House and a Chairman who may be a member of either House nominated by the Ceann Comhairle and Cathaoirleach jointly. The reports of the Examiner of Private Bills can be referred to the Joint Committee which in turn will nominate the members to the Joint Committee on a Private Bill.
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Government
The executive powers of the State are exercised by, or on the authority of, the Government. The Constitution provides that the Government shall consist of not less than seven and not more than fifteen members. The Taoiseach, Tánaiste and Minister for Finance must be members of the Dáil. The other members of the Government may be members of the Dáil or Seanad, but not more than two may be members of the Seanad. The Government acts collectively and is responsible to the Dáil.
The Taoiseach is appointed by the President on the nomination of the Dáil. He must resign if he ceases to retain the support of a majority in the Dáil.
The Taoiseach assigns Departments of State to members of the Government. Usually, each member of the Government heads one Department of State, but occasionally a Minister is responsible for more than one Department. Ministers of State, who are not members of the Government, assist Government Ministers in their Parliamentary and Departmental work. The maximum number of Ministers of State is fixed by law at seventeen.
The Taoiseach nominates one member of the Government to be Tánaiste. The Tánaiste acts in place of the Taoiseach if the Taoiseach is temporarily absent or becomes incapacitated.
The Attorney General, while not a member of the Government, acts as legal advisor to the Government and may attend Cabinet meetings. The Attorney General's tenure of office is normally coterminous with that of the Government.
Voting in Elections and Referenda
Opportunities to vote arise in five decision-making procedures:
- the election of the President every seven years;
- Dáil (parliamentary) elections, at least every five years;
- referenda on proposed Constitutional amendments;
- the election of representatives to the European Parliament, every five years;
- elections to local authorities, every five years.
Resident citizens over the age of 18 years may vote at Dáil, Presidential, local and European elections, and referenda. British citizens living in Ireland may vote at Dáil, European and local elections. European Union citizens may vote at European and local elections. All residents, regardless of citizenship, may vote at local elections.
The electoral system is proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote (PR-STV) in multi-member constituencies.
Dáil Elections
Voting in Dáil elections is by secret ballot; postal voting is confined to members of the defence forces, police service and civil servants and their spouses serving abroad. Persons with disabilities and persons whose occupations are likely to prevent them from polling at their local polling station may apply for a postal vote. Certain full time students may also apply.
The system of voting used can be described as follows: The voter marks the ballot paper by placing the figure '1' opposite the name of the candidate of his or her first choice and, if the voter wishes, '2' is placed opposite the name of the second choice, and so on.
The elector is, in effect, telling the returning officer 'I wish to vote for A, but if that candidate does not need my vote or has no chance of being elected, transfer my vote to B; if B in turn does not need my vote, or in turn has no chance of election, transfer my vote to C'. At the opening of the count, the ballot papers are mixed together and then sorted according to the first preferences recorded for the candidates. The total number of valid papers is counted, and the electoral quota is calculated. The quota is the smallest number of votes necessary to secure the election of a candidate. The quota is established according to the formula:
Total valid votes
____________________ +1
number of seats +1
Thus, if there were 40,000 valid votes and four seats to be filled, the quota for election would be 8,001 and only four candidates could reach the quota.
If, on the first count, no candidate has reached the quota, the candidate who received the lowest number of votes is eliminated and his or her votes are transferred to the candidate for whom a second preference is recorded. If a candidate receives more than the quota required for election, his or her surplus votes are transferred to the remaining candidates in accordance with the subsequent preferences expressed by the electors.
When the number of remaining candidates who have neither been elected nor eliminated corresponds to the number of vacancies to be filled, those candidates are declared elected. This applies even though the remaining candidates may not have reached the quota.
Seanad Elections
An election for the Seanad takes place not later than ninety days after a dissolution of Dáil Éireann. The voting system used is proportional representation by secret postal ballot.
The electorate for the forty-three members of the Seanad elected from panels of candidates, numbers just over 1,100. The electorate comprises the members of the newly-elected Dáil, the members of the outgoing Seanad, and the members of every council of a county or county borough. There is a separate election for each of the five panels. The electorate for the six members elected from the universities consists of every citizen who has received a degree (other than an honorary one) from those universities and who has attained the age of eighteen years and is registered as an elector.
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Political Parties
(based on material provided by the parties themselves)
Fianna Fáil, Fine Gael, Labour, The Progressive Democrats, the Green Party, the Socialist Party and Sinn Féin are represented in the Dáil.
Fianna Fáil
Fianna Fáil, the Republican Party, was founded by Éamon de Valera in 1926. Its aims are to secure in peace and agreement the unity and independence of Ireland and its people; to develop a distinctive national life in accordance with the diverse traditions of the Irish people and to restore Irish as a living language; to guarantee religious and civil liberty and equal opportunities; to develop the resources and wealth of Ireland to their full potential to provide the maximum sustainable employment based on fostering a spirit of enterprise and self-reliance and on social partnership; to protect the natural environment and heritage of Ireland; to promote the family and a wider sense of social responsibility; to maintain the status of Ireland as a sovereign state, as a full member of the European Union and the United Nations on the basis of Ireland's independent foreign policy tradition and to reform the laws and institutions of the state to make them caring and responsive to the needs of the citizen.
Fianna Fáil has been in government in 1932-1948, 1951-1954, 1957-1973, 1977-1981, in 1982, 1987 - 1994 and June 1997 to date. Its leaders have been Éamon de Valera, 1926-1959, Seán Lemass, 1959-1966, Jack Lynch, 1966-1979, Charles Haughey, 1979-1992, Albert Reynolds, 1992-1994, and Bertie Ahern, from November, 1994 to date. Its achievements have included the consolidation of Irish independence, promulgation of the Constitution in 1937, maintenance of Irish neutrality in the Second World War, construction of a domestic industrial base, redistribution of agricultural land, the introduction and extension of housing and social assistance programmes, the introduction of free secondary education, the opening up of Ireland to trade and investment, negotiating entry into the EEC and participation in the single currency, including substantial increases in EU structural and cohesion funding and the attraction of high technology industry and financial services to Ireland.
Building on the success of the Downing Street Agreement of 1993 and the ensuing ceasefires the Taoiseach and leader of Fianna Fáil, Bertie Ahern, signed the Good Friday Agreement with the British Government and the Northern Ireland parties.
Fianna Fáil is a broad based party with strong representation in both urban and rural Ireland. Since 1932 it has consistently been the largest party in the Dáil, and at the General Election of June 1997 won almost 40% of the popular vote. It holds 75 out of the 166 seats in Dáil Éireann and 31 out of the 60 seats in Seanad Éireann. In November, 1997, the Fianna Fáil candidate, Mary McAleese was elected President of Ireland.
Fianna Fáil is part of the Union for Europe group in the European Parliament. The Party's Head Office is at 13 Upper Mount Street, Dublin 2. Tel: 00 353 1 676 1551; fax: 00 353 1 6785690. Website: www.fiannafail.ie
Fine Gael
Fine Gael won over 28% of the total votes cast in the general election of June, 1997. This represented a 3% increase in the party's vote on the previous general election, and left the party holding 54 out of the 166 seats in Dáil Éireann, making it the largest opposition party. Although the Fine Gael-led coalition that governed from 1994 to 1997 was not returned, Fine Gael was nonetheless reinvigorated by that term in government, and was further encouraged by the increase in its vote share that followed.
The leader of Fine Gael is John Bruton, former Taoiseach and current vice-president of the Christian Democrat International. Fine Gael was founded in 1933 by the coming together of a number of parties. The predominant party in this amalgamation was Cumann na nGaedheal. Cumann na nGaedheal had been founded in 1923 to sustain the Government of the infant Free State in its efforts to build and develop the new nation on the basis of the treaty negotiated a few months earlier. The Cumann na nGaedheal party governed from the foundation of the State until 1932. Fine Gael has committed itself to an ideal which was shared by Cumann na nGaedheal of developing a wider, pluralistic sense of Irish nationalism.
Fine Gael policy is based on the principles of the encouragement of enterprise combined with social justice and with decision-making devolved to the appropriate level. A core ideal of the party is reconciliation with and between the peoples of the island of Ireland, and the belief that this will not be achieved through confrontation. Fine Gael favours a planned approach to sustain Irish economic development while at the same time maintaining the economy's openness. This is to be done by a mixture of State encouragement for private enterprise and effort and direct State involvement in a number of areas. It has as its immediate objectives improved access for young people and women to decision-making, greater tax equity, the improvement and development of the country's infrastructure, fairer opportunities in education and the elimination of social exclusion.
Fine Gael is also committed to the development and unification of the European Union. Along with its sister parties in the European People's Party, Fine Gael seeks solutions on a European level to the problems and challenges of the new century. The EPP is the largest group in the European Parliament, has played a leading role in the founding of the EU, and is a strong advocate of European integration. Fine Gael's Headquarters is at 51 Upper Mount Street, Dublin 2. Tel: 00 353 1 619 8444; fax: 00 353 1 662 5046. Website: www.finegael.ie
Labour Party
The Labour Party is represented in Dáil Éireann, Seanad Éireann and in the European Parliament as a member of the Party of European Socialists (PES).The Party was founded in 1912 at a conference of the Irish Trade Union Congress in Clonmel under the inspiration of James Connolly, Jim Larkin and William O'Brien. Through its affiliation to the Socialist International is a sister party of the Social Democratic Labour Party in Northern Ireland.
The Labour Party seeks to build a society free from deprivation and based on the principles of democracy, equality, participation and co-operation.
The Labour Party has twelve affiliated trade unions representing 50% of all trade union members in the State.
Since its foundation, the Labour Party has taken part in seven coalition Governments, the latest of which ended in 1997.
In the 1997 General Election, the Party won 10.4% of the votes and currently has 21 seats in the Dáil.
In 1999, it merged with Democratic Left.
The Leader of the Labour Party is Ruairi Quinn TD who represents Dublin South East in the Dáil and is a former Minister for Finance. The Party Head Office is 17 Ely Place, Dublin 2. Tel: 00 353 1 661 2615; fax: 00 353 1 661 2640. Website: www.labour.ie
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The Progressive Democrats
The Progressive Democrats were formed in 1985. There are seven members of the parliamentary party, four Dáil Deputies and three Senators. The leader of the Progressive Democrats is Mary Harney, the first woman leader of a political party in the history of the State. Mary Harney was elected leader in October 1993. She succeeded the founder of the Party, Desmond O'Malley TD. The Progressive Democrats were established with the aim of providing Ireland with a modern, forward-looking liberal party in the European mould.
The party formed the current Coalition Government with Fianna Fail in 1997 and were previously in coalition with Fianna Fail from 1989 to 1992. The party favours positive State action to create an enterprise society and is working in Government to develop the role of the State in the economic and social life of the country. The leader of the Progressive Democrats is Mary Harney TD, the current Tanáiste and Minister for Enterprise Trade and Employment.Party Headquarters are at 25 South Frederick Street, Dublin 2. Tel: 00 353 1 679 4399; fax: 00 353 1 679 4757. Website: www.progressivedemocrats.ie
The Green Party/Comhaontas Glas
The Green Party / Comhaontas Glas was founded in 1982 from an alliance of social movements and protest groups. The Party's electoral breakthrough came in 1989 when their first Green TD, Roger Garland (Dublin South), was elected. This was followed by further electoral successes in the 1991 local government elections. In the 1992 General Election the Greens lost their Dublin South seat but the election of Trevor Sargent (Dublin North) continued their parliamentary representation. A further breakthrough was achieved in the 1994 European elections when Patricia McKenna (Dublin) and Nuala Ahern (Leinster) were both elected as Green MEPs to the European Parliament. In the 1997 General Election the Greens increased their Dail representation by one, when John Gormley (Dublin South East) joined Trevor Sargent, who successfully retained his seat. In the 1999 European Elections both Green MEPs successfully retained their seats.
The party is a member of the European-wide Green movement through the European Federation of Green Parties while its two MEPs are members of the Green Group in the European Parliament.
The motto of the Irish Green Party is, Think Globally, Act Locally. It puts this motto into practice through its many policies on a wide range of social and environmental issues. The Party has no leader and attempts at all times to work through consensus decision-making. The Irish Greens are now represented at every level of government throughout Ireland - at local, national and European. Green Party Office/Comhaontas Glas 5A Upper Fownes Street, Dublin 2. Tel: 00 353 1 679 0012 Fax: 00 353 1 679 7168 Web Page http://www.greenparty.ie
Socialist Party
The Socialist Party is a party campaigning in the interests of ordinary workers, the unemployed and young people. The Socialist Party stands in the best traditions of James Larkin and James Connolly. The Socialist Party believes that real campaigners and real socialists will make a real difference. The party is represented in Dail Eireann by Joe Higgins T.D. Socialist Party, 141 Thomas Street, Dublin 8; tel: 00 353 1 677 2686; website: www.socialistparty.net
Sinn Féin
Sinn Féin, founded in 1905, is an Irish republican party. The party has as its objectives: the re-unification of Ireland, political independence and national sovereignty.
Sinn Féin has representatives elected to local councils and the Northern Ireland Assembly, as well as a representative in Dáil Éireann. The party has two Westminster MPs, Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness.
According to Sinn Féin, their political priority is their peace strategy and in the last ten years the party has seen the development of a peace process, which led to the Good Friday Agreement in April 1998. They are committed to the full implementation of the Agreement and are continuing to work towards Irish unity and independence.
Sinn Féin is a republican labour party committed to far reaching social, economic and political change. They have wide ranging all Ireland policies designed to see the wealth which is currently being created used to the benefit of all. Sinn Féin states that they are working to establish a new Ireland based on genuine democracy, equality, respect for difference and justice at all levels of society.
Sinn Féin’s vision is of a future in which people, whatever their social or economic status, are part of a society that affords them opportunity, dignity and the right to participate in the processes of power that affect their lives.
The leader of Sinn Féin is Gerry Adams MP.
The party's Head Office is at 44 Parnell Square, Dublin 1. The Sinn Féin website is http://sinnfein.ie Tel: 00 353 1 8726932 Fax: 00 353 1 8733441
The Civil Service
The legal basis for the present system of central public administration is contained in the Public Service Management Act 1997 and the Ministers and Secretaries Act 1924 and its eleven subsequent amendments. This body of law provides for a statutory classification of the functions of Government under the various Departments and Offices of State. There are fifteen Government Departments each headed by a Minister, who collectively form the Government. They are assisted by seventeen Ministers of State. Ministers have responsibility for the performance of the functions of a Government Department as assigned by the Ministers and Secretaries Act 1924, as amended. The day-to-day management and administration of a Department's functions is the responsibility of its Secretary General, who is a permanent civil servant, appointed by the Government.
The civil service is independent in the performance of its duties and has no involvement in party politics. Party political activity is strictly forbidden for all middle and high-ranking civil servants.
Recruitment to the civil service is by open public competition administered by the independent Civil Service Commission. Staff are recruited at a number of different grades up to middle management level.
The civil service comprises a number of grade categories with different functions. These functions cover, broadly, four categories of duties: the administrative grades have responsibility for policy formulation; the professional grades provide specialist knowledge and skills within the civil service; the executive grades are involved in the implementation of policy decisions; the clerical grades are responsible for general duties. There are some 30,000 people employed in the civil service.
Teachers and members of An Garda Síochána (police force) and staff of local authorities and of the health services, as well as members of the Defence Forces, belong to the wider public service, rather than the civil service. Their salaries are also, however, paid from central Government funds, through the Departments of Education, Justice, Environment, Health, and Defence respectively.
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Departments of State
The Department of An Taoiseach provides the secretariat to the Government and assists the Taoiseach in the carrying out of his constitutional and legal functions. The Department has responsibility for the National Economic and Social Council, the Government Information Services and the Central Statistics Office. It has responsibility in regard to the administration of all public services which do not fall within the remit of another Government Department while also being charged with the custody of public archives and state papers.
The Department of Finance has responsibility for the administration and guardianship of the public finances of the State. It is concerned with the raising and the provision of money for State purposes, the control of public expenditure, and social and economic planning. It is responsible for the co-ordination and the improvement of personnel and management functions in the public service. It is also responsible for other central Government services such as the Office of the Revenue Commissioners and the Office of Public Works.
The Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development provides a wide range of services to the agriculture and food sectors. Its Inspectorate is responsible for the maintenance of Plant and Animal Health and Agricultural Research. An important element of the Department's functions is the implementation and administration of European Union agricultural policies.
The Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands is responsible for the formulation of national policy relating to Arts Heritage and Culture, promotion of the social and economic welfare of the Gaeltacht, and encouraging the preservation and extension of the use of Irish as a vernacular language, as well as responsibilities in relation to the development of offshore islands.
The national cultural institutions (the National Museum, the National Library, the National Gallery of Ireland, the National Archives, the National Concert Hall and the Irish Museum of Modern Art), the Arts Council and the Heritage Council come under its aegis.
The Department of Defence is responsible for the external security of the State. This involves the administration, recruitment, regulation and organisation of the army including the air corps, the naval service, as well as civil defence.
The mission of the Department of Defence is to contribute to national security and stability by the provision of Defence Forces capable of fulfilling the roles assigned by Government and to provide an effective Civil Defence capability.
The Department of Education administers, oversees and finances primary, secondary and third-level education services and operates the State examination system for schools.
The mandate of the Department of Enterprise, Trade and Employment is to implement Government policy in five key areas- development of enterprise, employment promotion, trade development, protection of workers and the regulation of businesses.
The Department also has policy responsibility for a number of state-sponsored bodies (Forfás, IDA Ireland, Shannon Development, Enterprise Ireland, FÁS, Health and Safety Authority (HSA), National Standards Authority of Ireland (NSAI)).
The Department of the Environment and Local Government is responsible for setting the legislative and policy framework for local authorities. The Department also provides finance for local authorities as well as playing a role in providing general guidance and support.
The Department of Foreign Affairs' primary function is the promotion and protection of Irish interests abroad. It also advises the Government on Ireland's foreign relations and acts as the channel of official communication with foreign Governments and official organisations. The Department is responsible for diplomatic representation abroad and for the implementation of Ireland's aid programme for developing countries.
The Department of Health and Children's role is to protect, promote and restore the health and well-being of people by ensuring that the health and personal social services are planned, managed and delivered to achieve measurable health and social gain and to provide the optimum return on resources invested. It oversees the work of the health boards, the voluntary hospitals and a range of specialist agencies.
The Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform has a wide range of responsibilities including responsibility for the internal security of the State and the provision of support for the Courts, the Prison Service and An Garda Síochána (police force). It is also charged with promoting equality of opportunity within the State and has responsibility for instituting law reform measures, in relation to both the civil and criminal law. It is also responsible for the provision of Legal Aid Schemes for criminal and civil matters, for the proper registration of ownership of land, for processing applications by non-nationals in relation to admission, residence, citizenship, asylum and for a range of other matters such as censorship, Data Protection and criminal injuries compensation.
The Department of the Marine and Natural Resources is responsible for policy issues in relation to the fishing and marine related industries, shipping, marine research and technology, aquaculture, marine safety and general marine conservation policy.
The Department of Social, Community and Family Affairs has responsibility for the administration of the social insurance and the social assistance schemes within the State social security system.
The Department of Tourism, Sport and Recreation has responsibility for the formulation of policies in relation to tourism and sport matters, and for local development with a particular emphasis on improving the quality of life of communities characterised by high levels of social deprivation.
The Department of Public Enterprise is charged with policy formulation in the areas of aviation, rail and road transport, energy, as well as postal, radio and telecommunications policies.
Many Departments also have responsibility for State-sponsored companies entrusted with the implementation of policy. There are also a number of other organisations within the civil service:
The Office of the Revenue Commissioners is responsible for the administration, enforcement and collection of taxes and duties.
The Office of Public Works provides accommodation for Government Departments and offices, police stations, primary schools and it undertakes civil engineering projects on behalf of the State.
Other State services include the Government Supplies Agency, the Central Statistics Office, the Valuation and Ordnance Survey Office, the State Laboratory, the Office of the Comptroller and Auditor General, the Office of the Attorney General, The Local Appointments Commission and the Government Information Services.
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Ombudsman
The Ombudsman is empowered to investigate the actions of Government Departments, Local Authorities, Health Authorities and the Postal Service and their officers. The Ombudsman is appointed by the President on the advice of the Government and is independent in the performance of his or her duties. The office has its own investigative staff and is free to determine its own procedures.
Information Commissioner
The role of the Information Commissioner is to review (on application) decisions made by Government Departments, other public bodies, Local Authorities and Health Boards in relation to requests made under the Freedom of Information Act, 1997 and to make binding decisions. It fosters an attitude of openness among public bodies by encouraging the voluntary publication by them of information on their activities.
The Data Protection Commissioner
The Data Protection Act, 1988 protects the rights of individuals in relation to personal data kept about them on computer. The Act obliges persons who hold information about individuals to conform to standards of fairness and quality when obtaining and using personal data.
Public Offices Commission
The role of the Commission is to provide advice and assist compliance with the Ethics in Public Office Act, 1995 and to investigate contraventions of the Act. These functions relate to holders of certain public offices (including Ministers and Ministers of State), special advisers and persons employed in designated positions in certain public bodies. The Commission also has the principal supervisory role under the Electoral Acts, 1997 and 1998, dealing with the disclosure of political donations, the public funding of political parties and the capping of election expenditure.
State-Sponsored Bodies
There are about 120 State-sponsored bodies. These can be loosely classified as commercial, developmental, health, cultural, regulatory and advisory. Until recently several of the Commercial State- sponsored bodies had a monopoly in their area of activity but almost all are now operating in a competitive environment, providing a range of goods and services. The Developmental bodies are concerned with the provision of a range of technical and support services to industrialists, farmers and start up businesses. The Health bodies, which include some hospitals, are concerned primarily with the direct provision of services and research to the public and health professionals, as well as to the State. Cultural bodies are involved in the promotion throughout the State of cultural activities. Regulatory bodies often perform functions previously carried out by central Government, sometimes on a semi-commercial basis, and include the registration of medical professionals and the licensing of telecommunications operators. Advisory bodies are on the whole permanent consultative bodies which have an input to the policy making process.
Within general policy guidelines laid down by the Government and within the limits of statute law, State-sponsored bodies have significant autonomy. Although the Government or an individual Minister usually appoints members to the Boards or Councils of the bodies, they are not subject to detailed Ministerial control over day-to-day matters.
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Publicly owned utility Companies
The Electricity Supply Board was responsible for all electricity generation and supply until competition in generation and supply of electricity began in February, 2000. An Post provides mail services. Bord Gáis (Irish Gas Board) is responsible for the supply of natural gas. RTÉ, the radio and television network, runs national television and radio services. TOP OF PAGE
Transport
The publicly owned road and rail transport system is operated by the Coras Iompair Éireann (CIE) group of companies. Iarnród Éireann (Irish Rail) operates the nationwide railway system for passengers and freight, including the Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) network. Bus Átha Cliath (Dublin Bus) operates urban bus services in the Greater Dublin area. Bus Éireann (Irish Bus) operates a network of bus services outside Dublin city. Aer Rianta manages international airports at Dublin, Cork and Shannon. Aer Lingus, the Irish international airline, provides international air services.
Other Trading Companies
IFI (Irish Fertilizer Industries) manufacture agricultural fertilisers. The Irish National Petroleum Corporation deals in the international oil market and operates its own refinery. Bord na Móna is responsible for the development and processing of Ireland's peat resources. Coillte Teo is responsible for the commercial functions of the forest service.
Promotional Agencies
The State has established a number of agencies responsible for the promotion of various aspects of the Irish economy. These include Forfás, Enterprise Ireland, IDA Ireland, the Irish Tourist Board (Bord Fáilte), Bord Bia, Bord Iascaigh Mhara (BIM) and Shannon Development.
Forfás is the policy advisory and co-ordination board for industrial development and science and technology in Ireland. It is the body in which the State's legal powers for industrial promotion and technology development have been vested. It is also the body through which powers are delegated to Enterprise Ireland for the promotion of indigenous industry and to IDA Ireland for the promotion of inward investment.
Enterprise Ireland is responsible for the development of exports and export markets by and for Irish indigenous companies.
IDA Ireland has national responsibility for securing new investment from overseas in manufacturing and international service sectors and for encouraging existing foreign enterprises in Ireland to expand their businesses.
Bord Fáilte Éireann (the Irish Tourist Board) is responsible for marketing Ireland internationally.Bord Bia's role is to develop export markets for Irish food and drink companies.
BIM is responsible for the sustainable development of the Irish seafish and aquaculture industry both at sea and ashore and the diversification of the coastal economy.
Shannon Development is a regional development organisation funded by central Government which is responsible for the integrated development of tourism, manufacturing and trade in the Shannon Region.
Udarás na Gaeltachta is responsible for economic development in the Gaeltacht areas.
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Economic Development Organisations
Enterprise Ireland (incorporating the former Irish Trade Board and Forbairt) helps Irish companies to build their competitive advantage through innovation, marketing and technology. Enterprise Ireland offices worldwide link international buyers with Ireland’s competitive supply capability. The Industrial Development Agency - Ireland is the agency responsible for attracting foreign investment into Ireland and Bord Fáilte (the Irish Tourist Board) markets Ireland as an international tourist destination.
Other State-sponsored bodies are engaged in the areas of education and research, public administration, fisheries and corporate finance. Within general policy guidelines laid down by the Government, State-sponsored bodies have significant autonomy. Although the Government or an individual Minister usually appoints members to the Boards or Councils of the bodies, they are not subject to detailed Ministerial control over day-to-day matters. TOP OF PAGE
Local Government
At present the local government system is undergoing a process of renewal and reform. Changes are being made to strengthen and modernise the powers of local authorities while enhancing the focus on customer service and efficiency. The two key broader aims of the reforms are to strengthen the role of elected councillors and to encourage stronger links between local authorities and the local community and these changes are reflected in the new Local Government Bill which was published in 2000.
There are 114 local authorities: 29 County Councils, 5 County Borough Corporations, 5 Borough Corporations, 49 Urban District Councils (UDCs) and 26 Town Commissions.
In June 1999 a referendum was passed to afford constitutional recognition to local government and to provide for periodic local elections and the relevant legislation is being drafted.
Membership and Election of Local Authorities
The members of local authorities are elected for a five year term of office in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. Anyone who has reached the age of 18 and is either a citizen or ordinarily resident in the State is eligible to become a local authority member. Every person who is over 18 years of age and ordinarily resident in the State is eligible to vote at local elections.
Membership of local authorities is as follows:
County Councils varies from 20 to 48 members
County BoroughCorporations varies from 15 to 52 members
Borough Corporations and 3 largest UDCs 12 members
Other UDCs 9 members
Town Commissions 9 members
The functions carried out by elected members at their meetings are called reserved functions. These functions mainly relate to matters of policy and principle, including control over the financial affairs of the authority, the making of the development plan and the making of bye-laws. The elected members also have a role in overseeing the activities of the manager, including the power to issue directions in certain circumstances.
Each county and city authority has a full time chief executive, the city or county manager, who is also responsible for the other local authorities within that area. Any functions which are not "reserved functions" automatically fall to be performed by the manager and are termed executive functions and are primarily concerned with the day-to-day running of the authority. The manager also has a duty to advise and assist the elected members in the exercise of their functions.
Reserved functions are discharged by the elected members at their meetings; they comprise mainly decisions on important matters of policy and principle, including control over the financial affairs of the authority, the making of a development plan, and the making of bye-laws. Any function which is not a 'reserved' function is automatically an executive one to be performed by the Manager, but the elected members have various powers enabling them to oversee the activities of the Manager, and to give directions in certain circumstances. In turn, the Manager has a duty to advise and assist the elected members in the exercise of their functions.
Services
The services provided by the major local authorities can be described under eight main headings, known as programme groups: housing and building; road transportation and safety; water supply and sewerage; development incentives and controls; environmental protection; recreation and amenity; agriculture, education, health and welfare; and miscellaneous services.
Financing
Expenditure by local authorities on the various services provided by them accounts for a sum corresponding to approximately 4.5% of GNP. This consists of current spending (approximately 65% of the total) and capital expenditure (approximately 35%). Almost all of the capital spending is funded by State grants, covering the cost of major construction works on roads, water and sanitary services facilities, and much of the housing construction programme. Revenue (current) expenditure is financed through a combination of State grants, local rates on commercial and industrial property, and through fees, charges, rents and services provided by the local authorities.
Regional Structures
Regional authorities - eight of which were established in 1994 - are statutory bodies comprising local elected representatives selected by constituent local authorities. Their main tasks are to promote the co-ordination of public services in their region and to review and advise on the implementation of EU structural and cohesion funds programmes.
Two Regional Assemblies - the Border, Midland and Western Regional Assembly, and the Southern and Eastern Regional Assembly - were established on 21 July, 1999 under the new structures for regionalisation. The assemblies are based on the existing regional authority structure and their functions are:-
to promote co-ordination of the provision of public services in their areas
to monitor the general impact of all EU programmes of assistance under the Community Support Framework in their areas, and
to manage new regional operational programmes in the next Community Support Framework
Health Boards
For health purposes, the country is divided into eight regions, each of which is administered by a health board. The boards are responsible for the management and delivery of health and personal social services in their regions. The Eastern Health Board, which covers the Dublin, Kildare and Wicklow region, was replaced in 2000 by the Eastern Regional Health Authority. The Authority will oversee the work of three new Area Health Boards and will also be responsible for funding the voluntary hospitals in the region.
Regional Tourism Authorities
The country is divided into seven regions with six Regional Tourism Authorities and Shannon Development, who are responsible for tourism in the Shannon Region. Each Regional Tourist Authority is a public company. The role of the Regions is to co-ordinate and assist in the development of tourism and to provide visitor services facilities.
Vocational Education Committees
Vocational Education Committees provide technical and vocational education, including adult and continuing education. The committees have their own corporate status and are financed by State grants and by the local authorities.
County Enterprise Boards
A nationwide system of City and County Enterprise Boards was established in 1993 to provide a focus for enterprise and employment promotion at local level. The Boards are locally controlled enterprise development companies established in each county and urban local authority area in Ireland. Their function is to develop indigenous enterprise potential and to stimulate economic activity at local level. This is done primarily by providing financial support, advice and training for the development of micro enterprise. Micro enterprise is generally defined as that in which less than ten people are employed. The Boards support individuals, firms and community groups provided that the projects have the capacity to achieve commercial viability. TOP OF PAGE
Fisheries Boards
The Central Fisheries Board and seven Regional Fisheries Boards are responsible for the protection, conservation, management and development of inland fisheries and of sea angling resources within their respective regions.
Port Companies and Harbour Authorities
Eight Port Companies, covering the States major ports, were established under the 1996 Harbours Act; a ninth company was created in 1999. These Companies have responsibility for management and development of their respective ports.
There are seventeen Harbour authorities, which are responsible for the operation and maintenance of the commercial harbours.
Both Port Companies and Harbour Authorities are under the general supervision of the Department of the Marine and Natural Resources.
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Legal System
Irish law is based on Common Law as modified by subsequent legislation and by the Constitution of 1937. Statutes passed by the British Parliament before 1921 have the force of law unless repealed by the Irish Parliament or found to be unconstitutional. In accordance with the Constitution, justice is administered in public in courts established by law. Judges are appointed by the President on the advice of the Government. They are invariably senior practising members of the legal profession. They are guaranteed independence in the exercise of their functions and can be removed from office for misbehaviour or incapacity only by resolution of both Houses of the Oireachtas (the National Parliament).
The court of summary jurisdiction is the District Court. The country is divided into 23 District Court districts. There is legislative provision for the appointment of 51 judges of the District Court (including the President of the Court). There are currently 50 judges serving in the District Court (including the President of the Court). A District Court is presided over by a District Court judge sitting without a jury. It tries minor criminal offences and has powers to impose fines of up to IR£1,500 (€1,904) or prison sentences up to a maximum of one year or both. The District Court also handles minor civil cases. The civil jurisdiction of the court is IR£5,000 (€6,349).
More serious cases are tried by the Circuit Court. The country is divided into eight Circuit Court circuits. Legislation provides for the appointment of 27 judges of the Circuit Court (including the President of the Court). Currently, there are 24 judges serving in the Circuit Court (including the President of the Court). The Circuit Court can try all criminal cases except rape, treason, piracy, murder and allied offences. The jurisdiction of the Circuit Court in civil cases is limited to IR£30,000 (_38,092) unless both parties consent to its jurisdiction being unlimited. It also acts as an appeal court from the District Court. In criminal cases the Circuit Court is presided over by a judge sitting with a jury of twelve ordinary citizens. In other cases the Court is presided over by a judge sitting alone.
The High Court has full original jurisdiction and determining power in all matters of law or fact, civil or criminal. It can decide the validity of any law, having regard to the provisions of the Constitution. When trying criminal cases the High Court is known as the Central Criminal Court.
The High Court hears appeals from the Circuit Court in civil cases. In criminal cases, and in a limited number of civil cases, the Court is presided over by a judge sitting with a jury of twelve ordinary citizens. In other cases the Court is presided over by a judge sitting alone. The maximum number of ordinary judges which may be appointed is 25.
Legislation provides for the establishment of Special
International Relations
The Constitution of Ireland affirms Ireland's devotion to the ideal of peace and friendly co-operation amongst nations founded on international justice and morality. In accordance with the principles set out in the Constitution, foreign policy is based on the conviction that the country's interests, and those of all countries, are best served by respect for the rule of law in international relations. Ireland is committed to the United Nations system and its diplomacy seeks to uphold the values of liberal democracy and, especially, respect for human rights. It has a sense of solidarity with the many countries which also achieved independence only in the last century.
Since the early 1800's, Irish people have emigrated in large numbers to many parts of the world. Close economic and cultural ties exist with countries where a significant proportion of the population is of Irish descent. These include Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. Diplomatic relations are maintained with more than 90 countries.
White Paper on Foreign Policy
In 1996 the Department of Foreign Affairs held a series of public seminars around the country on aspects of Foreign Policy. These were an important instrument in the formulation of the comprehensive statement of Irish foreign policy "Challenges and Opportunities Abroad". This document reaffirmed the basic tenet of Irish foreign policy as the achievement of peaceful and friendly co-operation amongst nations founded on international justice and morality.
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The United Nations
Ireland has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, and has been active in efforts to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the UN Charter. Ireland has twice served already on the Security Council, in 1962 and in 1981-2 and was elected to a non-permanent seat on the Council for the 2001-2002 term. The Defence Forces have served with distinction in many UN peace-keeping missions and a significant proportion of their personnel is deployed on UN service today. Members of An Garda Síochána (the police force) have also served in UN peace-keeping operations in recent years.
During the plenary debate at the commencement of the General Assembly each year the Minister for Foreign Affairs has traditionally taken the opportunity to outline the Government's approach to global problems and to inform Member States of developments in relation to Northern Ireland. Ireland supports UN specialised agencies such as the UN High Commission for Refugees, the UN Development Programme, the International Labour Organisation and the World Health Organisation. The country plays an active role in the Commission on Human Rights and in other UN fora in promoting universal standards of human rights. Ireland was a member of the Commission on Human Rights for a three year term which ended on 31 December 1999. In 1997 Mary Robinson, former President of Ireland, was appointed UN High Commissioner for Human Rights.
Ireland has been consistently to the fore in leading efforts to promote disarmament, particularly nuclear disarmament. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty originated in an Irish initiative at the UN General Assembly in 1958, and the country was the first to ratify the Treaty. On the 9 June 1998 the then Minister for Foreign Affairs, Mr David Andrews, T.D., launched an international drive to reinvigorate the nuclear disarmament agenda. The ministerial declaration entitled Towards a Nuclear Weapons Free World: The Need for a New Agenda was co-sponsored by the following countries - New Zealand, Sweden, South Africa, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico and Slovenia. The Dublin Declaration calls on the five nuclear weapons states and the three nuclear-capable states to commit themselves to the elimination of their nuclear weapons. At the Sixth Review Conference of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, in May 2000, a Final Document was adopted which addresses the goals Ireland and the New Agenda Coalition set out in the Dublin Declaration. The Nuclear Weapons States gave an unequivocal commitment to the elimination of their arsenals and subscribed to detailed next steps on the road to a world free of nuclear weapons.
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Europe
In 1949 Ireland was a founder member of the Council of Europe which brings together all European parliamentary democracies. Ireland is an active participant in the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), now renamed the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). The CSCE played an important role in bringing an end to the East - West divide by developing agreed norms and principles governing security, arms control, human rights and co-operation on economic, social and cultural matters. Since the end of the Cold War, the CSCE has evolved into an organisation with a key role in the spread of democratic values and in the promotion of co-operation among all European countries. Ireland is committed to the further development of the OSCE as a pan-European security forum and to achieving a central role for the organisation in continent-wide security arrangements. In Autumn 1999 Ireland joined the Partnership for Peace.
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Other International Organisations
The following are some of the other international organisations of which Ireland is a member: Bank for International Settlements, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, also known as the World Bank), International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation (IFC), International Telecommunications Union (ITU), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the World Trade Organisation (WTO)..
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The European Union
Ireland joined the then European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 and has participated actively in the evolution of what is now the European Union (EU). EU membership is pivotal to Government policy. It is a central framework within which the Government pursues its foreign policy objectives. Ireland's membership of the EU is rooted in an understanding that the Union is the cornerstone of political and economic stability in Europe. Membership gives Irish exporters full access to the European single market, and this has contributed to Ireland's economic success. EU involvement enables Ireland's views and interests to be reflected in the policies of the Union which exercises considerable influence in world affairs. Ireland's participation in the Union enhances its capacity to pursue its traditional policy of promoting a stable, peaceful and prosperous international environment with structures based on the rule of law, respect for human rights and representative government. Ireland has held the six-month Presidency of the European Union on five occasions, in 1975, 1979, 1984, 1990 and 1996. It is currently expected that Ireland's next Presidency of the Council of Ministers will be in 2004.
Ireland has 15 Members of the European Parliament; they are elected from 4 constituencies by the Single Transferable Vote method of Proportional Representation. The Irish member of the European Commission is David Byrne, who currently holds the portfolio for Health and Consumer Affairs.
The Single Market: the most obvious economic benefit of membership of the Union has been the unhindered access it allows to a market of some 370 million people. This has in turn required an adjustment of the economy to international competition. Membership has contributed to rapid progress in a range of areas including the development of agriculture, industry and services. Apart from the economic benefits, membership of the Union has had a major impact on social and cultural life. In addition, every Irish citizen is also an EU citizen. Among the rights conveyed by EU citizenship are the right to move and reside freely within the territory of other Member States, subject to certain limitations.
Economic and Social Cohesion: the Union embodies the principle of economic and social cohesion according to which the less prosperous regions are helped to reduce disparities between their levels of development and those of the more prosperous regions. This principle was reinforced in the Single European Act and again in the Maastricht Treaty. Under the new round of structural funds 2000-2006 Ireland will receive funding of IR£3.4 billion (_4.3 billion). This funding is a relatively small component of the National Development Plan for the period (IR£40.6 billion or _51.5 billion).
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Common Foreign and Security Policy
When joining the EEC in 1973, Ireland became fully involved in consultation and coordination between member states on matters of foreign policy. This process, known as the European Political Cooperation (EPC) was codified and given Treaty status in the Single European Act (1986). The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) provisions of the Treaty on European Union (the Maastricht Treaty, 1992) represented a further expression of the Union’s desire to develop common policies and to act jointly in international affairs. The Amsterdam Treaty, which the Irish people approved by referendum in May 1998, is expected to come into force in 1999. It represents a further evolution of the Common Foreign and Security policy. Within the CFSP framework, Ireland participates fully in the formulation and implementation of the European Union’s foreign policies.
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Development Co-operation
Ireland, recognising that all areas of the world are inter-dependent, acknowledges its obligation to contribute to the economic and social progress of the developing countries.
Private support for Third World countries is very high. In recent years, Irish agencies have played a major role in providing humanitarian assistance in the crises that have arisen in a number of countries. The activities of non-governmental organisations such as Concern, Trócaire, GOAL, Christian Aid and Irish Red Cross have drawn attention to the public's commitment to the Third World.
External Relations
Ireland's membership of the EU is rooted in the understanding that the Union is the cornerstone of political and economic stability in Europe. To this end Ireland advocates the enlargement of the European Union to include countries of Central and Eastern Europe and of the Mediterranean basin.
Apart from the considerable economic and social benefits conferred by membership of the Union, it also enables the country's views and interests to be taken into account in a grouping of major influence in world affairs. Ireland's participation in this grouping enhances its traditional role in promoting a stable, peaceful and prosperous international environment with structures based on the rule of law and respect for human rights and democratic values.
Membership of the Union has strengthened Ireland's contacts with the wider world. In the case of Central and Eastern Europe, the Union and its Member States are committed to developing close economic, political and cultural relations with the countries of the area and to assisting in the process of future integration. Likewise, solid foundations have been laid for closer relations with the Baltic States. Ireland, together with its partners, supports the economic and political reform process in Russia and in the other countries of the former Soviet Union.
The southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean, as well as the Middle East, are areas with which the Union has strong interests in terms of peace, stability, security and regional economic and social development. In this region, the Union has special relations with Cyprus, Malta and Turkey.
Considerable importance is attached to the Union's relations with the US and Canada. Relations are underpinned by substantial trade and investment flows and by a shared commitment to democracy and human rights. In Latin America, Ireland participates in the development of the Union's relations with such regional entities as the Mercosur and Rio Groups.
In Asia, mutually beneficial economic and political co-operation is developing with the members of ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) and with other countries, many of which are, or are rapidly becoming, major partners in the world trading system.
Development Co-operation: the European Development Fund (EDF) is the main financing instrument of the Lomé Convention. Through its participation in the work of the EDF Ireland co-operates in the development of some 70 countries in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific.
Common Foreign and Security Policy
When joining the EEC in 1973, Ireland became fully involved in consultation and coordination between member states on matters of foreign policy. This process, known as the European Political Cooperation (EPC) was codified and given Treaty status in the Single European Act (1986). The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) provisions of the Treaty on European Union (the Maastricht Treaty, 1992) represented a further expression of the Union's desire to develop common policies and to act jointly in international affairs. The Amsterdam Treaty, which the Irish people approved by referendum in May 1998, came into force in June 1999. It allows for a further evolution of the Common Foreign and Security policy, with the establishment of the post of High Representative. Xavier Solana, a former Spanish Foreign Minister and Secretary General of NATO, is the first holder of this post. Within the CFSP framework, Ireland participates fully in the formulation and implementation of the European Union's foreign policies.
2000 Intergovernmental Conference
In the European Union context an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) is convened specifically for the purpose of amending the Treaties establishing the European Union. The Helsinki European Council convoked an Intergovernmental conference in 2000 to amend the European Union Treaties with particular reference to the institutional arrangements.
Development Co-operation
Ireland, recognising that all areas of the world are inter-dependent, acknowledges its obligation to contribute to the economic and social progress of developing countries.
There is strong public support for the Government's Official Development Programme and the development and relief programmes of Irish Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Irish missionary organisations.
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Official Development Assistance (ODA)
Ireland Aid, the Government's official Development Cooperation Programme, celebrated its 25th anniversary in 1999. Ireland's Official Development Assistance has been expanded significantly in recent years. Total expenditure in 1999 amounted to IR£178 million (_226 million) - the highest ever level of ODA expenditure. The comparable figure for 1998 was IR£140 million (_177.7 million). Ireland is committed to reaching the 0.7% of GNP target for ODA expenditure by the end of 2007.
The Ireland Aid Programme:
- is directed primarily at the poorest countries and people of the world
-is designed to meet basic needs of people in developing countries such as primary health care, education, clean water supplies, sustainable agriculture, forestry and environmental protection
-is carried out in partnership with governments and communities in developing countries to ensure coherence with developing countries' own development strategies
-helps people in developing countries to advance their own sustainable development. Ireland Aid concentrates on projects which can be continued by local people after Irish assistance is phased out
-supports education and training as important elements of the programme. Assistance ranges from grants towards the construction of schools and the training of public servants within their own countries, to funding for training students from developing countries in third-level institutions in Ireland
-funds improved primary health care as one of its main components
-is committed to giving systematic attention to the role of women in development. Women provide approximately 90% of agricultural labour in Africa. Projects which offer training and education to women to allow them full participation in decision making are particularly encouraged through Ireland Aid
-implements a number of projects which relate to the particular needs of children in the areas of disease prevention, education and primary health care
- supports institutions and mechanisms which empower people, especially the poor and women, and encourages democratisation and good governance and the development and empowerment of civil society in general. Respect for human rights and freedom to participate in development are key issues in world development
- allocates funding in the form of direct grants. As no loans are given, no debt is created. The Irish Government recommends a fresh approach by the international community to the debt problems of developing countries, and the crippling impact of debt on many developing countries. In particular, the Irish Government strongly supports action to ensure that debt repayments do not affect the capacity of developing countries to finance basic social programmes, especially in education and health
-takes the likely impact on the environment into consideration in its projects
-aims to be effective and takes great care to ensure that the best possible use is made of taxpayers' money. Its work is constantly reviewed both internally and with the aid of external consultants.
Ireland Aid is administered by the Development Cooperation Division of the Department of Foreign Affairs . The Minister of State at the Department of Foreign Affairs, Liz O'Donnell, TD, has special responsibility for overseas development and human rights.
Bilateral Aid
An important element of the Ireland Aid programme is its special relationship with certain developing countries. Direct funding is given to programmes and projects which meet basic needs in six priority countries: Ethiopia, Lesotho, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. The Ireland Aid Priority Country Programmes are focussed on reducing poverty. They concentrate on trying to meet the basic needs of people such as health care, education, clean water supplies and food security. In addition to the priority countries, bilateral aid is provided for specific projects in a number of other countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe.
Emergency Humanitarian AssistanceEach year, Ireland Aid also sets aside funding for emergency humanitarian assistance in order to be able to respond quickly and effectively to natural disasters, famine, war and civil strife. Irish emergency assistance is channelled through NGOs and international organisations such as UNHCR, UNICEF and the International Committee of the Red Cross. In recent years Ireland Aid has assisted affected populations, refugees and displaced people in Sudan, the Great Lakes region, West Africa, Kosovo and East Timor.
Rehabilitation assistance
Funding is also provided for emergency post-disaster preparedness activities to assist communities threatened by disasters. In addition, rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes are essential in the post-disaster phase. Assistance is given to help meet basic needs in the shelter, health care and education sectors and in areas such as institution and human resource capacity-building. Ireland Aid helps to promote rehabilitation and reconciliation through this type of assistance in countries such as Rwanda, Bosnia Herzegovina, Angola and Somalia.
Human Rights and Democracy
Ireland Aid supports human rights and democratisation projects in a wide range of countries. These projects include activities such as grassroots human rights and democracy education programmes, election monitoring and support for the development of parliamentary and judicial structures.
Support Through APSO The funding for the Agency for Personal Service Overseas (APSO) comes out of the Ireland Aid budget. APSO recruits Irish men and women to share skills and knowledge with people in the developing world. In 1999, APSO supported 1,151 development and relief assignments in 82 countries.
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Support through Non-Governmental Organisations
Ireland Aid co-funds, through the NGO Co-Financing Scheme, small-scale projects which require once-off support in the areas of water/sanitation, primary health care, basic education, training and rural and urban community development. Ireland Aid also provides financial support through NGOs from its Emergency Aid, Rehabilitation and Human Rights budgets .
Support for Programme Refugees
The Refugee Agency, which is funded by Ireland Aid, is responsible for coordinating arrangements for the admission, reception and resettlement of programme refugees admitted under Government decisions. Previous refugee groups resettled in Ireland have come most notably from Vietnam and former Yugoslavia. In early 1999, over 1,000 refugees fleeing the Kosovo crisis were given temporary protection in Ireland .
Support for Development Education Ireland Aid recognises the importance of development education as a means of promoting better awareness and understanding among Irish people of development issues. Th National Committee for Development Education (NCDE) is funded by Ireland Aid for this purpose. NCDE has a resource centre which contains a wide range of development education materials for primary and secondary teachers, lecturers, adult education tutors, youth leaders, women's and community groups and students.
Multilateral ODA
Approximately one third of the total Ireland Aid budget is invested in large-scale multilateral aid projects and programmes.
As members of the European Union (EU), Ireland annually contributes funding to the European Development Fund (EDF), which provides assistance such as major infrastructural and rural development programmes to over 70 developing countries in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific. In addition, a share of Ireland's mandatory contribution to the general budget of the EU is devoted to development cooperation.
UN development and relief agencies such as UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) and UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) receive funding from Ireland Aid for their programmes in developing countries.
Ireland Aid coordinates the Irish Government's input to major United Nations summits and conferences, such as those on Children (1990), Environment and Development (1992), Population and Development (1994), Social Development (1995), and the World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995).
In recent years Ireland Aid has contributed to a number of new areas such as work to combat drugs and AIDS as well as increasing contributions to projects run by organisations such as UNICEF, UNHCR, UNDP and UNFPA.
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The Irish Abroad
Throughout the early medieval period Irish missionaries preached the gospel and established new monastic communities across the continent of Europe. This first great outward movement in Christian times was halted by the upheavals arising from the Viking impact on Ireland. Much later, with the overthrow of the Gaelic political order by the English in the 17th century, the first major migration of the modern period began.
Continental Europe
From the 16th century onwards the Catholic population suffered substantial religious disadvantages. They turned to the Catholic countries of continental Europe for aid and shelter. In 1578 the Irish College was established in Paris to train students for the priesthood. Other colleges were set up at Rome, Louvain, Salamanca and Lisbon.
The social and political disadvantages encountered by the Catholic nobility and gentry encouraged many of them to emigrate to Europe. This exodus reached its peak in the 18th century when Irish soldiers and statesmen earned distinction in the service of many European armies, those of France, Spain and Austria in particular. Thousands of Irishmen, known as the "Wild Geese", whose ranks included names like MacMahon, Taaffe, O'Neill and Butler, died fighting for continental armies up to the time of the Napoleonic wars.
In modern times involvement in the life of continental Europe has been mainly cultural. Joyce and Beckett both deliberately chose the continent as their base. Since acceding to the European Community in 1973 new opportunities to live and work in continental Europe have been created. Increasing numbers of young Irish men and women can now be found in the main EU countries, and this tendency is likely to grow.
Great Britain
The pattern of emigration to Britain has changed over the last two centuries. The highest rates occurred during famine years, particularly during the Great Famine from 1846-1851. High rates of emigration were again recorded during the boom years in Britain in the 1950s, which coincided with depression at home. Emigration declined between 1890 and 1935, but then resumed. It is estimated that there may be up to one million people of Irish birth (including those from Northern Ireland) in Britain today. However, there would be many more second or even third generation Irish, though precise figures are lacking. Many of these are conscious of their heritage, and interested in promoting Irish cultural and sporting activities, as could be seen in their contribution to the successes of the Republic of Ireland soccer team.
North America
Movement in appreciable numbers to parts of the world beyond Europe began in the early 18th century. Greater toleration and economic opportunities in the New World attracted many, especially Presbyterians from Ulster. There were large numbers of Irish in the Revolutionary armies. Four signatories of the American Declaration of Independence were of Irish birth, while another nine were of Irish ancestry.
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In the early 19th century increasing numbers went to the United States and Canada. The Great Famine hugely accelerated emigration and approximately five million people emigrated in the course of the century. Although the Irish settled all over the United States, they acquired exceptional political influence in cities like Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago and San Francisco. Their highly developed political and organisational skills enabled them achieve control of city administrations and leave a notable mark on the American political style.
Statistics indicate that over 40 million persons in the United States claim some Irish ancestry, and that 25% of this figure claim solely Irish ancestry. The States with the largest numbers of Irish-Americans are California, New York, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Irish-Americans are found in all areas of political, public, professional and economic life. Complete integration in American society has not, however, lost all these descendants to the culture and aspirations of Ireland and the maintenance of personal and family links is a continuing aspect of the relationship between the Irish and Irish-American communities.
Many distinguished American politicians are of Irish descent. Recent US Presidents of Irish ancestry included John F. Kennedy, Richard M. Nixon and Ronald Reagan. President Bill Clinton visited Ireland at the end of 1995.
Irish immigrants began to arrive in Canada in significant numbers in the 18th and early 19th centuries. By 1867 people of Irish descent comprised over 20% of the Canadian population, being outnumbered only by British and French-Canadians. Many leading figures in Canadian political life in the 19th century were either Irish-born or of Irish descent, including the distinguished statesman Thomas D'Arcy McGee (d. 1868). More recently, Brian Mulroney has been Prime Minister of Canada.
Australia
The Irish have made a significant contribution to the development of Australia and of the Australian identity from the time of the first European settlement there in 1788. Up to 30% of the Australian population is estimated to be of Irish descent, making Australia probably the most 'Irish' country in the world outside of Ireland itself.
In the early years many of those arriving came as convicts, both political and non-political. After the Great Famine increasing numbers of free settlers came, especially from Munster, settling mainly in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. These people and their descendants have left a rich legacy in every walk of Australian life, most notably in politics, the trade unions, the churches, education, literature, law, medicine and sport. Their powerful influence on Australian politics is exemplified by the fact that six of the seven Prime Ministers of Australia in the period 1929-49 had Irish forebears. More recently, former Prime Minister Paul Keating, who took office in 1991, has relatives in Co. Galway.
In sport, Australian Rules football, the most popular spectator sport in the country, is widely acknowledged as having its origins in Gaelic football. The two codes are so similar that an official international series between Ireland and Australia was inaugurated in 1984 under composite rules.
New Zealand
The Irish presence in New Zealand and their contribution to that country's development has also been considerable. It is estimated that 15% of the total population is of Irish descent. The Irish have played a prominent role in many aspects of New Zealand life. The first premier, John Edward Fitzgerald, was Irish-born. Captain Hobson, who signed the Treaty of Waitangi which founded the modern state of New Zealand, came from Waterford.
Latin America
In the early years of the 19th century, with the end of the wars in Europe, many Irish soldiers went to serve in the armies of the South American republics. At the same time Irish people went to work and farm in South America, especially in Argentina; a high proportion of these came from the Midlands. William Brown, born in Co. Mayo in 1777, arrived in Buenos Aires in 1812 and went on to found the Argentinean navy. Earlier, the Co. Offaly-born Don Ambrosio Higgins served as Spanish viceroy of Peru in the 1700s; his son Bernardo O'Higgins helped secure the independence of Chile and was its first head of government, from 1818 to 1823.
Irishmen also played a notable part in the history of Mexico. In Mexico City today a memorial recalls the Irishmen of the St. Patrick's Battalion who died in the Mexican-American war of 1847.
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Epilogue
Ireland has had the highest rate of emigration of any European country for the past two centuries, taking one decade with another. Unusually in the context of European emigration, as many women as men have emigrated. This enabled Irish people to intermarry to a great extent, and thus sustain a lively sense of community abroad. Ireland, until recently, has also had an exceptionally low rate of return migration. This has now changed with the growth in the number of educated emigrants returning during the 1990s.
Many Irish people, both religious and lay, have played prominent roles in missionary activity throughout the world. Together with their missionary work, they have contributed to the development of educational and medical facilities in many developing countries. In addition, a number of Irish development agencies, such as Concern, Trocáire, GOAL and Gorta, have in recent years made enormous contributions to development activities and humanitarian relief operations.
